The potential Effects of Microplastics on Biodiversity in the south East Kent Coast

This Paper is written by myself to show
The potential Effects of Microplastics on Biodiversity in the south East Kent Coast


The potential Effects of Microplastics on Biodiversity in the south East Kent Coast




ENJOY

Leaf Eating Pests

 

Information

• Leaf eating pests are insect that chew or consume plant tissue
• Natural insect repellent can be used in some cases
• Finding holes in the leaves of a plant means its sometimes easier to identify the creature/pest

 



• Sawflies chew holes that don't go all the way through the leaf, making it look intact but transplant. they have to killed by insecticides.

Sawflies

• Leaf miners burrow twisting tunnels across leaves another one to use insecticides against

Leaf Miners

• Sucking insects poke tiny holes in to leaves drawing the nutrition out of them. some examples includes aphids, squash bugs and spider mites. sucking insects can breed rapidly therefore you must act rapidly in order to get fully rid of the pests.

Spider Mites

• Slugs and snails will also feed on the plant leaves. However this is normally controlled by the natural food chain

Snail and Slug

Other animals:

• Wood Pigeon
• Ducks
• Geese
• Rabbits
• Hares
• Small rodents
• Deer

Stem-Borrowing Pest

Classification

• These live within the plants stem, often found stunting growth or killing the apical meristem.
• May also infect the roots and leaves
• May be a disease vector

Nematodes

• Stem Nematodes include Ditylenchus and Aphelencoides spp.

Diagram of Ditylenchus Dipsaci



• plant pathogenic nematode that primarily infects onion and garlic. It is commonly known as the stem nematode, the stem and bulb eelworm or onion bloat.
• Live in the roots of the plants to infect their host.
• Symptoms of infection include stunted growth, discoloration of bulbs, and swollen stems.

Coleoptera

Cabbage Stem- Weevil
 

• There's species are more often seen from spring to autumn
• The larvae develops in the stems of the brassicas and then continues its feed from there.
• Widespread throughout England and Wales
• Control used to reduce the amount is by seed treatments of gamma-HCH or Sprays of gamma-HCH, Azinphos-Methyl, Azinphos-methyl + demeton-s-methyl sulphone, chlorpyrifos or triazophos. (GRAHAM and GOULD, 1980)

Diptera

Frit Fly Life Cycle Showing that it is constantly living throughout the seasons

 

• The Frit Fly usually white, yellow and black and are often found in grassy areas.
• They cause damage to new turf by destroying the stems of ryegrass, fescues and bents (use of larvae)
• Adult Flies are attracted to white objects and if a sighting of a large number of these flies could indicate larvae
• Larvae dig tunnels, infect stems and stay through winter
• Fruit Flies can be controlled by chemical sprays

Lepidoptera

Rose Stem Girdler (Species Unknown)

 

• Metallic wood boring beetle
• Flathead larvae is the known youngling of the group they cause the most damage to the rose by borer tunnelling within the pithy centre of the stem.
• Swollen, gall-like area on canes
• Canes with wilted, dried leaves
• Upper portions of canes break off easily during the summer
• Tunnelling in the lower part of the cane
• Boring damage and galleries inside of the cane
• CONTROL; insecticides to kill any larvae and eggs, remove infected plants over the season and over winter  

references;

GRAHAM, C. and GOULD, A. (1980). Cabbage stem weevil (Ceutorhynchus quadridens) on spring oilseed rape in Southern England and its control. Annals of Applied Biology, 95(1), pp.1-10.

Soil/Root Dwelling - Homoptera

Cabbage Root Maggots

Cabbage root maggot flies are delicate, hump backed grey-brown flies, about 5-7mm long. Cabbage maggot flies are difficult to distinguish with the naked eye, but each will only be found on their appropriate family crop.

Cabbage Root maggot infesting a cabbage under a microscope.



• Small, white bullet shaped eggs are laid in the soil to form maggots which are white and legless they are found in the roots and around the roots as well.

This image shows how cabbage root has affected roots to the crops hugely and reduced the roots making it unable for growth. On top of this, the plant is parasitic for human consumption.

Onion and seedcorn maggot flies are very similar! 

Soil/Root Dwellers- Mollusca

Classification;

• Plant-boring pests- Attack the plants roots, tubers, bulbs, rhizomes or the basal regions of the stem
• Some are disease vectors
• Above ground feeders- on the leaves above ground in wet weather or dark phase.

 What do they do?

• Shred organic material
• Stimulate microbial activity
• Mix microbes with their food
• Mineralize plant nutrients
• Burrow
• Stimulate the succession of species
• Control pests

Predator

Micro-predators can be either feed on different prey or specialists, hunting only a single prey type. Predators include anything from centipedes, spiders, some mites, ground-beetles etc. Many predators eat crops pests and some have been developed for commercial bio-controls an example is parasitic wasps.

Predatory Mites Prey on nematodes, other mites and larvae of insects

Shredder

Seen in the soil surfaces. Chew up the dead plant matter as they eat bacteria and fungi on the surface of the plants. most abundant shredders are millipedes and sowbugs etc. These can become pests by feeding on living roots if sufficient dead plant material is not present. 



Sowbugs; powerful mouthparts used to fragment plant residue and leaf litter.

Herbivores

Numerous root-feeding insects. Mole crickets and anthomyiid flies (root maggot) just being 2 examples. some herbivorous such as rootworms can be crop pests where they occur in large numbers. they feed on roots and other plant parts

The Symphylan, relative to the centipede, feeds on the plant roots and can become a major crop pest if its population is not under control.

Fungal Feeders

Arthropods that graze on fungi includes some mites and silverfish along with springtails. they consume bacteria and fungi off the root surfaces. they are a pest in plants as they are a fraction if the loss in plant nutrients and the nutrients release by fauna

Pale-coloured, blind springtail is a typical fungi feeder. they live deep in the surface layer of natural and agriculture soils throughout the world

Soil and Root Dwellers- Nematodes

Classification;

 

• Plant-boring pests- Attack the plants roots, tubers, bulbs, rhizomes or the basal regions of the stem
• Some are disease vectors
• Above ground feeders- on the leaves above ground in wet weather or dark phase.

 

Nematoda; A virus Vector

• They are free-living
• Attack the outside of the plants (ectoparasitic)
• Live within the plant as well (endoparasitic)
• These can be classed as either migratory (Moving around form to one place to another) or sedentary (staying in one place)  

Example; Xiphinema spp. (Dagger nematodes)

 

 

This is a soil food web which shows how nematodes are put into the system as a vector under the soil and into animal species as well.

 

 

 

Root-Knot nematodes are plant parasitic nematodes. They exists in the soil where the areas are hot in climate or winters are short. About 5% of global crop loss is due to this nematode, the root-knot development drains the plant's photosynthetic material and nutrients.

Root-knot has a huge economical impact damaging plants and field crop. These nematodes are distributed worldwide and are extremely difficult to control.





Root Knot; Before and After







The 3 Strategies of survial

K- Strategist

• Stable environments are labelled by species with a K-strategy

Such animals tend to large, long-lived and invest a large amount of energy into rearing their offspring ensuring they have a higher survival rate.

Elephants are within the  K -species as they rear for their young to induce a higher survival rate therefore most of their energy is placed into that instead of surviving the unstable conditions they have adapted to K-strategist.

Population levels tend to remain stable

(More related to mortality then environmental influences)

R- Strategist

• Fluctuating Environments are labelled by species in the R-strategy

These tend to be small, short-lived species. whom invest all their energy in producing more offspring then the K species, the population density can get low due to parental care being minimum.



Mice are within the R-strategy as they have so many offspring that minimum care can be giving to all off the offspring from the mother therefore she actually produces a low density due to deaths at young ages.

Low survival rates but tend to maximum use of temporary environments

A table showing the Differences between R and K;

 

Table show the differences between R and K

The graph above shows lifespans of fish which is a R species therefore has a short lifespan but higher density (Blue line) and Dugongs which is a K species which population level tends to remain high therefore it lives longer (red line)

Bet-Hedging

• Bet-hedging strategies alter strategies according to their environment

some spread their life histories over variables time periods, others respond to their environments by laying eggs and then moving on.





the graph above shows how bet hedging works the growth of the plants is unpredictable by fitness as the plant is using mechanisms of change to survive in unpredictable circumstances.

PESTS! - MAINLY R-STRATEGISTS.

Reproductive stratgegy Theory of Pests

There is the theory that species adopt one of the 3 life strategies in order to survive in a stable and unstable environment.


either of the 3 strategies are below:

1. r-section
2. k-selection
3. bet-hedging

But, What is a Stable environment?

Well it is not the UK! Stable environments are those climates that are relatively constant or easily predictable in there weather and other areas as well for example the tropical rainforest has a constant temperature of around 5/6 degree and a known mist of fog. Therefore, this is a stable environment.




Temperature zones for the Rainforest live on the 27/04/2017

So, What is a Unstable environment?

This is more like the UK, it is an unpredictable environment which varies in it climates. as well as this there is disturbances in the temperature zones.

Temperature Zones for London showing rain in the evening live on 27/04/2017

Therefore Pests need to adapt to the environments by inhabiting to one of the 3 strategies above.






Go to the next Post to Find out more on the Strategies

What is a Pest?

What is a pest?


A troublesome and destructive animal or thing.

Types of Pests:

1. Nuisances
2. vectors
3. competitors of food products for human or livestock consumption.

Competitors- insects that are mainly mankind's biggest threat  



Nuisances- After death the growth of Bactria will grow of this species.  

Vector- carry of diseases to animals of plants

Vascular Plants

Vascular Plants (Phylum Tracheophyta)

• Tracheids - Specialised cells for conducting water and supporting tissues (forming the xylem vessels)
• All SPOROPHYTES in this group are larger than the gametophytes and have ROOTS, STEMS AND LEAVES.
• can be further sub divided into the non- sees tracheophytes and the seed plants

THE SPERMATOPHYTA 'Seed Plants';

Now represented by two Phyla:

- The Gymnosperms:
 ( Cycads, Gingkos, Gneetophytes, Confiers)

- Angiosperms
 (Magnoliphyta or flowering plants)

COMMON THINGS IN ALL SEED PLANTS;

• Seeds
• Reduced Gametophytes
• Heterospory: Spored of two different sizes and sexes
• Ovules: Female gametophyte, protected by tissues of sporangium
• Pollen: Male Gametes (Sperm cells)

THE ALTERNATION OF GERNERATION IN THE SPERMATOPHYTA;

 

• The gametophyte generation is reduced to a very small, simple stage (only a few cells!).

• The gametophyte develops partly or entirely whilst it is still nutritionally dependent on the sporophyte. 

Non Vascular Plants

Non Vascular Plants (Non- Tracheophytes): Bryophytes 

Main Features; 

• The group are largely confined to damp conditions which allow the passage of sperm to the archegonia and the flow of nutrients to individual’s cells. 

• Non- Vascular plants have recently been divided into 3 phyla which are started below (Originally one Bryophyte) and are classified according to the shape and the growth pattern of the sporophyte 

• They DON’T PRODUCE SEEDS due to them nurturing their zygotes in the tissues of the parent plant.

• They rely on the surface film of water to act as a transport system as tracheophytes are not huge plants therefore do not develop a transport system, so film of water transports all the nutrients which enters by diffusions. Some can tolerate very dry conditions but still relay on a moisture film for growth and reproduction.

Examples of Non vascular plants

Bryophyte (Mosses)

Formerly Class: Bryopside (musci)

First Fossil to date back 415 Mya.

Ø  Differentiated into simple leaf- like structures that can form stems

Ø  Some species with cells called hydroids which ‘die’ and become tubes through which water can pass- first origins of transport systems.

Ø  There are not lignified* but are otherwise analogous to xylem in the vascular plants.

Sporophyte is stalked with a spore capsule 

Hepatophyta (Liverworts)

Formerly class: Hepaticopsida

Thought to have been the first to evolve.

Ø  Some are leafy and prostrate, other are plate-like.

Ø  Sporophyte is not stalked (Although gametophyte which bears it may be)

Ø  Rhiziods (‘Rootlike structures’) are unicellular filaments

Anthocerophyta (Hornworts)

Formerly class: Anthocertopsida

Ø  Gametophytes always thalliod (not differenced into steam or leaf)

Ø  Sporophyte* stalked with needle like capsule- capable of indefinite growth.

Ø  Process stomata and form mutualistic relationship with cyanobacteria*

Form some of the largest non-tracheophytes- up to 20cm 

*SPOROPHYTE; is the diploid multicellular stage in the life cycle of a plant or alga. It develops from the zygote produced when a haploid egg cell is fertilized by a haploid sperm and each sporophyte cell therefore has a double set of chromosomes, one set from each parent.

*CYANOBACTERIA:  bacteria but are capable of photosynthesis. 

*LIGNIGIED: make rigid and woody by the deposition of lignin in cell walls.

LIFE CYCLE

Life Cycle Haploid/ Diploid Stage; Alternation of the generations between haploid gamete- producing Gametophyte and diploid spore-producing sporophytes, the gametophytes being the more prominent of the two

Life cycle of Non Vascular plants from Life, the science of biology

Sporophytes attached to the, and derive nourishment from, the gametophytes.

-          Male gametes (Mobile) are produced in an ANTHERIDUM

-          Female gametes are produced in an ARCHEGONIUM

Ø  The male swims in a surface film of a water and fertilise the female egg in situ. After syngamy, the sporophyte grows out of the gametophyte and derives its moistures and nutrients from it.

Remaining attached to the gametophyte throughout its life

Domain Plante (Basics)

Definition; 

‘A multicellular, Photosynthetic, eukaryotic organism (includes some algae)…which includes develops from the embryos protected by tissues of the parent plant” (all land plants)

THE LAND PLANTS; 

10 major clades;

•           Three clades have no system of conducting fluids- calling the Non- Vascular Plants or Non Tracheophytes
• 
  
•           Seven Clades have well- developed fluid transport systems based on cells called TRACHEIDS/ TRACHEOPHYTES

Divided into:

•       Non-vascular plants

•       Vascular land plants:

                - Non-seed plants

                - Seed plants:

                                >Gymnosperms

                                > Angiosperms

Domain Protista

The Kingdom Protista are a ‘paraphyletic’ group!

(Paraphyletic = consists of all the descendants of the last common ancestor of the group's members)

 

The Basics;

Mobile or stationary

 Most are unicellular, some multicellular

Autotrophs or heterotrophs, or both.

 

 

A mobile Protista

Both ASEXUAL and SEXUAL reproduction

Simple plasma membrane or stiffer structure (cell wall, internal shell)
Many contain endosymbionts

CHARACTERISTICS;

• Moist habitats
• Many single celled, some clonal, some multicellular (or colonial)
• Some mobile, other stationary
• Important in nitrogen cycling and in various carbon and nitrogen cycles
• Some important human parasites and pathogens

 

GROUPING;

Often grouped by ecological role;

1. Algae
2. Protozoa
3. Fungus- like

CLASSIFICATION BY BROAD 'SUPERGROUPS'

Excavata
Archaeplastida
Euglenozoa
Rhizaria
Stramenopila
Amoebozoa
Alveolata
Opisthokonta
Chromalveolata etc.

Movement;

Attached to surfaces and mobile;
Free-floating species sometimes grouped together as the plankton

• Ciliates: ciliated, move using cilia
•  Flagellates: flagellated, move using flagella
• Amoeboid: amoebae, move using pseudo-podia
• Slide, using carbohydrate or protein slime

 

Chlorophyta

Is one of the largest groups of green algae. Most aquatic, some terrestrial.

Pediastrum boryanum

Domain: Eukaryota

Kingdom: Protista

Division: Chlorophyta

Class: Chlorophyceae

Order: Chlorococcales

Family: Hydrodictyaceae

Genus: Pediastrum

Species: Pediastrum boryanum




Origin of different morphologies and multicellular bodies.....

Pediastrum boryanum

The Eukayotic Cell

Under Eukaryotic cell comes the Animal cell and Plant cell, and in comparison to the size the prokaryotic cell, the eukaryotic cell is much larger.

ANIMAL CELL

An animal cell and plant cell does have much more in common then in difference.

Typical Features;

Animal cell with the added chloplasts which is only in plants



 

MITOCHONDRIA;
the organelle that provides energy for the entire cell, by extracting from food during oxidative metabolism.

NUCLEUS;
command centre of the cell where DNA is located

ENDOPLASMIC RETICULUM;
smooth and rough;
Smooth - System of internal membranes that aids; manufacture of carbohydrates and lipids
Rough - Internal membranes studded with ribosomes that carry out proteins synthesis

GOLGI BODY;
collects, packages and distributes molecules manufactures molecules in the cell

(PLASMA) MEMBRANE;
Lipid bilayer in which proteins are embedded

RIBOSOMES;
Some complexes of RNA and Proteins that are sites synthesis

CHLOROPLAST;
is only found in the plant cell. This is on the diagram to show the difference in the animal and plant cells, chloroplast helps the plant cell produce food as it attaches it from the sun enabling photosynthesis.

PLANT CELL

As above you have the chloroplast which looks like this;

Heterotrophs capture light energy to produce their own food., Animal and bacterial cells contain chlorophyll, but it is not bound within organelles., Animal cells are able to capture light energy through stromal lamellae.

The only difference between a plant cell and an animal is;

1. Vacuole
2. Chloroplast (stated above)
3. Cell wall

VACUOLE;
 A membrane-bound organelle in the cytoplasm of most cells, especially plant cells, containing water and dissolved substances such as salts, sugars, enzymes, and amino acids.

CELL WALL;
a multi-layered structure unique to plants.
uses for this;
Strength to support the plant
Rigidity to fix cell shape
Flexibility
Porosity
Water-proofing
Barrier to pests
Protection against environmental stress 
Apoplastic transport
Signalling and sensing 

Cross section of both animal and plant cell to compare both

The prokaryotic Cell

Species definition;
"population of cells with similar characteristics"

Cell wall;
- Peptidoglycan
- Outer membrane

The DNA of Bacteria is contained in a circular chromosome, folded into many loops

Bacteria have both a plasma membrane and cell wall

Bacteria often have a small circles of additional DNA called plasmids.

SHARED CHARACTERISTICS

1. Plasma or cell membrane
2. Nucleoid
3. Cytoplasm; Cytosol + Insoluble Particles
4. Ribosomes

DISTINCTIVE CHARACTERISTICS

1. Cell walls
2. Capsules
3. Internal membranes
4. Flagella
5. Pili
6. Fimbriae
7. Cytoskeleton

PLASMA MEMBRANE;
is a selective barrier enclosing the cell that separates the interior and exterior of the cell from the environment. It is semi permeable, it allows gases, nutrients and waste in and out of the cell. (Bilayer of Phospholipids with proteins attached to or embedded in it)

NUCLEIOD;
The region in the prokaryotic cell where DNA is located

CYTOPLASM;
Composed of cytosol; mostly water and soluble particles

RIBOSOMES;
complex of RNA and proteins which function as sites for proteins synthesis (RNA-PROTIENS)

CELL WALL;
Outside the plasma membrane, bacteria contains peptidoglycan that covers the entire cell:
- gives rigidity
- Support and shape

CAPSULE;
layer of polysaccharides enclosing the cell wall.
protects the bacteria from the immune function and desiccation, also helps attachment

INTERNAL MEMBRANE;
A system of folded bilayer membrane that contains molecules needed for;
- Photosynthesis
- Cell division
- energy releasing reactions

FLAGELLA;
Corkscrew- like appendage used for movement.
composed of flagellin and protein ring structures anchored in plasma membrane forming a rotor

PILI;
Hair like structure, shorter then flagella.
Made of protein projecting from the surface of many bacteria
Used for adherence.

FIMBRIAE;
Shorter then the pili.
Used for adherence to animal cells, food and protection

CYTOSKELETON;
Network of filaments structures, extends length of cell.
Inside the plasma membrane. present in rod shape Bactria (E.Coli)

The Domains

Correct me if I am wrong.... but there are 3 main domains in the 'tree of life'

1. Eukaya
2. Archea
3. Bactria

As stated above this are the main 3 domains... lets go into a bit more depth.

DOMAIN EUKAYA;
This domain contains 4 more domains within it;

1. Protista
2. Fungi
3. Plante
4. Animalia

DOMAIN ARCHEA;

These are only found in the most EXTREME ENVIRONMENTS:

·         Hot springs

·         Anerobic or microaerophilic conditions

·         Sulphurous Volcanic upwellings

·         Extremely saline conditions

·         High alkalinity

·         Extremely acidic conditions

 

Phylum: EURYARCHAEOTA

·         Metgangens

·         Obligate anaerobes producing methane

·         Some are also extreme thermophiles

·         Extreme Halophiles

·         Some use Bacteriorhodopsin to photosynthesis

 

Methanobrevibacter smithii

Domain: Archaea

Kingdom: Euryarchaeota

Phylum: Euryarcheota

Class: Methanobacteria

Order: Methanobacteriales

Family: Methanobacteriaceae

Genus: Methanobrevibacter

Species: M. smithii

 

Phylum: Crenarchaeota

-          Extreme acidophilic and/or thermophiles (often found at volcanic vents)

-          E.g Thermus aquaticus= taq polymerase used DNA amplification

-          Some can survive pH 0.9 and >70 degrees

Sulfolobus acidocaldarius

Domain: Archaea

Kingdom: Crenarchaeota

Phylum: Crenarchaeota

Class: Thermoprotei

Order: Sulfolobales

Family: Sulfolobaceae

Genus: Sulfolobus

Species: Sulfolobus acidocaldarius
 

DOMAIN BACTERIA;

Phylum: Proteobacteria

·         Gram negative

-          Negatively charged cell wall:

       Helps evading Phagocytosis

       Physical Barrier

·         Largest Number of species:

-          E.coli, salmonella, vibrio, Helicobacter

-          Anaerobic, Chemoautotrophs, photoautotrophs, heterotrophs

-          Beneficial symbionts

-          Pathogens

Example;

ESCHERICHA COLI (E.COLI)

Domain: Bacteria

Phylum: Eubacteria

Class: Protebacteria

Order: Gammaprotebacteria

Family: Enterobacteriace

Genus: Escherichia

Species: E.Coli

Phylum: Firmicutes

·         Gram positive, with cell wall containing teichoid acids

·         Teichoid acids:

-          Movement of cations in/out of the cell

-          Antigenic specificity

-          Some produce extremely persistent endospore e.g. anthrax, tetanus

·         Actinomycetales are filamentous bacteria

·         Superficially resembling fungi

·         Important component of the soil microbiota

·         Some serious pathogen, e.g. Mycobacterium

·         Produce many antibiotics, e.g. Streptomycin group

STAPHYLOCOCCUS ALBUS (S.ALBUS)

Domain: Bacteria

Phylum: Firmicutes

Class: Cocci

Order: Bacillales

Family: Staphylococcaceae

Genus: Staphylococcus

Species: Staphylococcus Albus