The potential Effects of Microplastics on Biodiversity in the south East Kent Coast

This Paper is written by myself to show
The potential Effects of Microplastics on Biodiversity in the south East Kent Coast


The potential Effects of Microplastics on Biodiversity in the south East Kent Coast




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Vascular Plants

Vascular Plants (Phylum Tracheophyta)

• Tracheids - Specialised cells for conducting water and supporting tissues (forming the xylem vessels)
• All SPOROPHYTES in this group are larger than the gametophytes and have ROOTS, STEMS AND LEAVES.
• can be further sub divided into the non- sees tracheophytes and the seed plants

THE SPERMATOPHYTA 'Seed Plants';

Now represented by two Phyla:

- The Gymnosperms:
 ( Cycads, Gingkos, Gneetophytes, Confiers)

- Angiosperms
 (Magnoliphyta or flowering plants)

COMMON THINGS IN ALL SEED PLANTS;

• Seeds
• Reduced Gametophytes
• Heterospory: Spored of two different sizes and sexes
• Ovules: Female gametophyte, protected by tissues of sporangium
• Pollen: Male Gametes (Sperm cells)

THE ALTERNATION OF GERNERATION IN THE SPERMATOPHYTA;

 

• The gametophyte generation is reduced to a very small, simple stage (only a few cells!).

• The gametophyte develops partly or entirely whilst it is still nutritionally dependent on the sporophyte. 

Domain Plante (Basics)

Definition; 

‘A multicellular, Photosynthetic, eukaryotic organism (includes some algae)…which includes develops from the embryos protected by tissues of the parent plant” (all land plants)

THE LAND PLANTS; 

10 major clades;

•           Three clades have no system of conducting fluids- calling the Non- Vascular Plants or Non Tracheophytes
• 
  
•           Seven Clades have well- developed fluid transport systems based on cells called TRACHEIDS/ TRACHEOPHYTES

Divided into:

•       Non-vascular plants

•       Vascular land plants:

                - Non-seed plants

                - Seed plants:

                                >Gymnosperms

                                > Angiosperms

Common Land Biomes

All Biomes that are Known so Far
(Source; Internet Geography- Introduction to the Ecosystem)

 

 

 

 

Tundra

Tundra occurs close to the North Pole, above 65 drees N. The South Pole is largely surrounded by the ice and the seas of the Antarctica, and so there are very little area with plants. Tundra is the coldest biome, and precipitation and evaporation are minimal.

Even with the little precipitation, the lack of evaporation and drainage means the ground is waterlogged and permanent ice occurs below a few centimetres of soils.

The plants are mostly;

-      Mosses

-     Linches

-     Herbs

-      And low shrubs.

 (Grasses and sedges occur in drier places as do other flowering plants)

Plant diversity is low and most plants are small.

 

Alpine

The Alpine Biome is similar to Tundra but lacks permanent ice below the soil, and the temperature very more widely. Alpine areas occur throughout the world, often at about 10,000 feet at lower latitudes, but always just below the snow line. Because of their altitude, these are widely cold places. The thin atmosphere provides only limited protection from UV radiation.

Many Alpine plants are therefore low and slow growing.

 

Taiga

These cool, moist forests occur from 50 to 60 degrees N.

The short summer bring rain, and most of the plants are conifers like;

-     Spruce

-     Fir

-     larch

-     and pine

 (With an understory dominated by shrubs in the blueberry and rose families.)

The soils are deep with accumulated organic matter because of the low temperature result in slow decomposition but they are acidic and poor in nutrients.

 

Temperature Coniferous Forest

 

Two Broad areas of temperature conifers forest occur below 50 degree N in North America, Northern Japan and parts of Europe and the continental Asia.

Along the Pacific coast of the U.S, abundant precipitation permits growth of enormous conifers such as

-     Douglas- fir, Redcedular, Sitka, Spruce and redwoods.

 (Much of the undergrowth is ferns and members of the blueberry family.)

 In the interior of North America, much less precipitation and colder winter temperature support drought- resistant conifers such as Ponderosa and Lodgepole Pines and Englemann Spruce  

 

Deciduous Forest

A moderate climate of hardwood deciduous trees which occur across much of North America, Europe and Asia. Much of this biome is has been exposed to human disruption for agriculture and urban development.

There are usually 15-25 species of trees including;

-     Maples

-     Oaks

-     Poplars

-     And Birches

Springtime Sun passes through the seasonally leafless to reach diverse undergrowth flora. Soils are rich in nutrients from yearly leaf fall, and moderate temperatures and precipitation promote decomposition, while the cool winters promote accumulation of organic materials.

 

 

Temperature Grassland

Before settlement, this biome was occupied by most of the western midlands united states, where it is dominated by the blue- stem and buffalo grasses.

Fire helps maintain grass populations in this biome.

-     Lack of precipitation also prevents many species of trees from growing, and those trees that usually do grow are in low moisture areas

-     Where there is enough moisture to support decomposition, the soils accumulate nutrients, providing some of the most productive agricultural lands.

 

Desert

Desert occurs in continental interior around the North and the south of the equator from 25-35 degrees.

Wind patterns prevent this biome from receiving more than a few centimetres of precipitation yearly.

The deep- rooted plants are adapted to store water, like a cactus.

Primary production is low and soils are poor in nutrients but may have high surface salt evaporation.

 

Chaparral

Like Deserts, the distribution of Chaparral reflects a narrow range of climate conditions and occurs on western edge of continents from 32-40 degrees north to south of the equator.

Precipitation ranges from 35-70cm per year, usually falling in 2-4 months.

 Typically plants are;

-      Yearly herbs

-     Evergreen shrubs

-     And small trees

Typical Woody Species;

-     Olives

-     Eucalyptus

-     Acacia

-     Oaks

(Always drought Resistant and often adapted often adapted to withstand fire. Limited precipitation means soils are not rich in organic materials)

 

Savannah

Tall, perennial, grasses dominate this biome which occurs in eastern Africa, southern South American and Australia.

Rain is seasonal and ranges from 75- 150 cm per year.

Scattered trees and shrubs usually drop their leaves in the dry season to protect moisture.

Animal diversity can be high and include the large mammals well known in Africa.

 

Rain Forest  

This moist, highly diverse forest extends North and south of the equator from 10 degrees N to 10 degrees S. (Imagine line around earth)

Yearly rainfall is commonly more than 250cm, and tree diversity alone often exceeds 300 species per hectare.

-     Trees grow tall, and many have buttressed roots for support.

-     Lianas and other epiphytic plant are common.

-      Most leaves are evergreen and leathery and many have long pointed tips that facilitate drainage of excess moisture.

 

Due to the high temperature and heavy rains, decomposition, is very rapid, preventing the accumulation of organic material in clay-rich or sandy soils

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

  

The Ediacaran Fauna

The Ediacaran fauna are fossilized multi-cellular organisms that were formed by moving sands washed over mud flats, creating the shape in figure 1.

Figure 1. The Shape that was formed by an Ediacaran Fauna

These existed from about 600 million years ago to approx. 545 million years ago. The fauna has now been found on all continents except Antarctica.

 

WHAT COULD HAVE MADE THESE CREATURE DIE OUT?
It is difficult to state the main planetary effect on the conditions with organisms, communities and ecosystems. However huge changes was occurring at the end of the Precambrian and the start of the Early Cambrian stages. From rising sea levels creating shallower waters, there was a fluctuation in carbon dioxide levels meaning changes in ocean chemistry as well as nutrient crisis all making it harder for The Ediacaran Fauna

 

Grimes' Triangle

Grimes' Triangle has 3 points to it as seen in figure 1 below these are naturally referred to as "C-S-R" in many scientific reports for abbreviation.
The C stands for competitions with plants
The S stands for Stress
The R stands for ruderal (Meaning a plant growing on a space where there is already crowded plants)



 Grime's C-S-R triangle theory has been discussed in plant ecology for two decades, but it has rarely been tested, and not often dispassionately evaluated. We consider the theory from a community viewpoint, and attempt to develop and test predictions for plant communities. C-S-R assumes that in high-disturbance (ruderal, R) patches or habitats, competition will be absent, or low in intensity. Testing this is problematic because of the difficulty of defining the intensity of competition, and we could find no rigorous evidence to support or refute the prediction


Wilson, J. and Lee, W. (2000). C-S-R triangle theory: community-level predictions, tests, evaluation of criticisms, and relation to other theories. Oikos, 91(1), pp.77-96.

Co-Evolution

What is Co- Evolution?

In biology, Co-Evolution occurs when changes in at 2 or more species genetics compositions reciprocally affect each others evolution.
I.e. the Bird and the Flowers, The Spider crab and the Alga, The bacteria and the Humans.

Types of Animal Interactions

• Phoresis
• Comensalism
• Mutualism
• Parasitism
• Predator Vs Prey
• Competition

 

PHORESIS.

In biology, the term phoresis is an inter-species biological interaction in ecology and refers to a form of symbiosis where the symbiont, termed the phoront, is mechanically transported by its host. Neither organism is physiologically dependent on the other.
Example; mosquitos take small amount of blood from humans neither is helped nor harmed but travelled with.

figure 1; Mosquito showing its taking blood

COMENSALISM

Comensalism is a relationship between two organisms where one receives a benefit or benefits from the other and the other is not affected by it.
I.e. Pilot Fish live round shark to eat the parasites that came of them, Some Orchards live on trees not harming them etc

Figure 2; Pilot Fish Live round sharks to eat the parasites around them
not affecting the shark

MUTUALISM

Symbiotic interaction between different species that is mutually beneficial
I.e. The Bee and the Flower, Monkey and Fruit.

Figure 3. Mutualism as there is a benefit for both the pollen gets transported across
the ecosystem and the insect gets it usage of pollen to produce what it needs to

PARASITISM

In biology/ecology, parasitism is a non-mutual symbiotic relationship between species, where one species, the parasite, benefits at the expense of the other, the host. Traditionally parasite (in biological usage) referred primarily to organisms visible to the naked eye, or macroparasites (such as helminths).
I.e. Bed bug, ring worm, Tape worm.

Figure 4. Mites on dogs are a Parasitism, the dog is not benefiting and the mite can not
been seen with the naked eye 

PREDATOR VS PREY

In an ecosystem, predation is a biological interaction where a predator (an organism that is hunting) feeds on its prey (the organism that is attacked). this is a relationship where an organism is likely to not survive.
I.e gazelle vs lion, Birds vs Butterfly, fox vs Rabbit

Figure 5. Fox Vs Rabbit

COMPETITION

Competition is an interaction between organisms or species in which the fitness of one is lowered by the presence of another. Limited supply of at least one resource (such as food, water, and territory) used by both can be a factor.
I.e, the Fight between bacteria and humans, grass and sheep.



Figure 6. All the Competition in one comic stripe

Plant-Plant Interactions

• Inhabitation
• Competition (As above)
• Facilitation

Further Reading;

Morris, J., Hartl, D., Knoll, A. and Lue, R. (n.d.). Biology.

 

 

 

 

 

R and K selection

As the name implies, r-selected species are those that place an emphasis on a high growth rate, and, typically exploit less-crowded ecological niches, and produce many offspring, each of which has a relatively low probability of surviving to adulthood.

HIGH (Reproductive Rate) = R
LOW (Reproductive Rate) = K

K species live in populations that are near or at the equilibrium conditions for long periods of time. Competitive for limited resources is very important in these environments.
I.e. Lemmas, Giraffe, elephants and bats.

R species live in populations that are highly variable. the fittest individuals in these environment have many offspring and reproduce early.  
I.e. Mosquitos and Toads.


Figure 1. A table showing r-K scale of reproductive of balancing egg outputs

Dis/Advantages of being a K species;

• reproductive rate last long time along with parental care making them a weakness to a competitive environment. (Dis)
• More care to young makes them more ability to survive in the wild as they will have learned behaviours from parents (Ad)
• The young will have be dependant on the mother which in order makes the mother a target for predators as she has herself to protect as well as her young (Dis)
• Fewer, Larger offspring. (Dis)
• Later reproductive age (Dis/Ad)
• High parental Care and protection for offspring (Dis)
• Larger Adults (Ad)
• Adapted to stable conditions of the environment (Ad)
• Population size fairly stable and usually close to carrying the capacity (Ad)

Dis/ Advantages of being a R species;

• where there is a short reproductive period there is less weakness for the a competitive environment (Ad)
• Likely that more young is produced known that at least one young will survive however they do have to learn on there own due to lack of parental care. (Dis)
• No young dependent on mother however this means lack of survival (Dis)
• Lower population growth rate (Dis)

Figure 2; Comparison chart for the R and K

 

Gaia Theory

What Is the Gaia Theory?

The Gaia hypothesis, also known as the Gaia theory/ Gaia Principle, proposes that organisms interact with their inorganic surroundings on Earth to form a synergistic self-regulating, complex system that helps maintain and perpetuate the conditions for life on the planet.

Figure 1. A simple Hypothesis.

Lovelock's Initial Hypothesis...

James Lovelock had defined Gaia as the follows;

"a complex entity involving the Earth's Biosphere atmosphere, Oceans and soils; the totality constituting a feedback or cybernetic system which seeks an optimal physical and chemical environment for life on this planet."

Lovelock suggested that life on Earth provides a cybernetic, homeostatic feedback system operated automatically and unconsciously by the biota, leading to broad stabilization of the global temperature and chemical composition.

lovelock claimed the existence of a global control system of the surface temperature, atmosphere composition and ocean salinity. He defended his claims with these points below;

• "The global surface temperature of the earth has remained constant, despite an increase in the energy provided by the sun"

• "Atmospheric composition remains constant, even though it should be unstable"

• Ocean Salinity is constant

 Gaia in Ecology?

Ecologists generally consider the biosphere as an ecosystem and the Gaia hypothesis, through a simplification of the of that original proposed, to be consistent with a modern vision of a global ecology, relaying the concepts of the biosphere and biodiversity.

Figure 2. More Info on Gaia Theory.
 

 

The Coppice Cycle Modern/ Ancient

In a coppiced woodland, young tree stems are repeatedly cut down to near ground levels. In subsequent growth years, many new shoots will emerge and after a number of years of the coppiced tree or stool is ready to be harvested and the cycle will be ready to start again.

coppicing was used in medieval times however not like it is today, it was operated to produce a crop of wood of different ages. Five year old coppice would be used for sheep hurdles, hedging stakes and thatching spars. All older wood could be used for fencing material, furniture and firewood as it lasted longer then developing wood. The cutting of different areas at different times produced age structuring.

Whereas, through the 18th and 19th centuries coppiced woodlands provided industrial charcoal for smelting of iron and bark was used for the tanning of liquors.

Fig 1.Hothfield Common;
 Hardly any
trees in 1961 

Fig 2. Trees encroaching and
covered most of the bogs in 1972.

However, by the mid- twentieth century coppicing was in a rapid decline and therefore many coppicing woodland was replaced with conifers or just neglected. Today society have protection over land with Coppicing trees such as Oak and Breach for example Hothfield Common as the land was neglected over time to a point where there was no woodland and the bogs began to dry up.





Management at Hothfield Commons do use the coppice cycle however only to a point where they can maintain the woodland so it does not engulf the bogs, the wood is used for the local people for firewood much like the medieval times.

Refeances /Further Reading

Hothfieldmemories.org.uk. (2016). Conservation of the bogs and heathlands | Hothfield Common - a unique heathland environment | Places | Hothfield Memories. [online] Available at: http://www.hothfieldmemories.org.uk/page/hothfield_common_-_a_unique_heathland_environment [Accessed 6 May 2016].

QUESTION; Describe how a coppice system might have operated in medieval times

Coppicing is an old method of producing a crop timber from a woodland. A tree grows from it's top producing side shoots at intervals from the main stem. If dominant buds are removed, this then stimulates new growth from the base.

coppicing was used in medieval times however not like it is today, it was operated to produce a crop of wood of different ages. Five year old coppice would be used for sheep hurdles, hedging stakes and thatching spars. All older wood could be used for fencing material, furniture and firewood as it lasted longer then developing wood. The cutting of different areas at different times produced age structuring.

Some trees were left to grow and produce larger timber these where known as "standard" trees today called Oak trees. These provided wood for houses and ships timber as it was more strongly built. As the trees are cut and removed from the wood, glades are created. Without the shade created by the trees, sunlight penetrates to the woodland floor promoting the growth of the woodland flowers such as bluebells and orchids.

Figure 1. showing stages of Coppice Development
(A guide to maintaining coastal bluff stability, 2016) 

As the coppice grows the plants that flower early will persist, whilst others are shaded out. After five years bramble and ivy have covered the woodland floor. However, with the decline of the flower comes and increase in mammal and bird life. Woodcock and Nightjar will nest in the glades created by coppicing and, as the trees grow, pheasant and nightingale, which prefer five to seven year growth, will come.

References;

A guide to maintaining coastal bluff stability. (2016). Recommendations. [online] Available at: http://wiblufferosion.weebly.com/recommendations.html [Accessed 5 May 2016].

Teleology and Teleological Argument

The Meaning of Teleology;

Teleomentalist views in biology are seen as a mere metaphor- describing and explaining biological phenomena on the basis of less or loose comparisons to psychological teleology. Those who hold teleology in biology to be metaphorical in nature typically regard it as eliminable meaning they believe that science in biology would not be essentially altered if all references to teleology were eschewed.

The Meaning of Teleonaturalism;

Those who reject teleomentalism typically seek naturalistic truth conditions for teleological claims in biology that do not refer to the intentions, goals or purposes of psychological agents. Some teleonaturalists seek to reduce teleological language to forms of description and explanation that are found in other parts of science.
One class of such views defines teleological notions cybernetically and maintains that teleology in biology is appropriate insofar as biological systems are cybernetic systems. Another, more-widely accepted approach treats functional claims in biology as part of the analysis of the capacities of a complex system into various component capacities.

Teleomentalism Vs Teleonaturalism

Several theorists have argued for the pluralistic idea that biology may incorporated two notions of function.

• One to explain the presence of traits
• to explain how those traits contribute to the complex capacities of organisms.
• Others have argued that these two apparently distinct notions of function can be unified by regarding the target of explanation as the biological fitness of a whole organism.

Nonetheless, the mainstream view among philosophers of biology is that natural selection accounts best explain the majority of uses of teleological notions in biology.


References/Further Reading

Allen, C. (1996). Teleological Notions in Biology. [online] Plato.stanford.edu. Available at: http://plato.stanford.edu/entries/teleology-biology/ [Accessed 3 May 2016].

The Law of Thermodynamics

The Laws Of Thermodynamics

There are 3 laws of thermodynamics however there is a zeroth law as well (Don't forget that!)

0th law;

If two systems are in thermal equilibrium independently system, they must be a thermal equilibrium with each other. they must be in thermal equilibrium with each other.

1st Law;

When energy passes, as work as heat, or with matter into or out from a system, its internal energy changes in accord with the law of conservation of energy.

• In terms of The System models this law would be used as an approach to pressure drop in open system or how much energy is required by an organism.
• In a nutshell first law simply means conservation of energy, or it states that energy is getting transformed from one form to another form.

Open System

Figure 1; representation of an open system (contaminator) with the equation by each side to work out the input and output

Closed System

Figure 2; shows how the cylinder is a closed system and is in the as the Q is it input and W is the Weight

it will increase by a quantity Q, because it is absorbing energy. And it will decrease by a quantity W

therefore the following equation is needed;

Figure 3; Equation meaning Heat and Energy = Quality - work

But remember to change the equation!

(This could then become an open system as in figure 1.)

2nd Law;

In a natural thermodynamic process. the sum of entropies of the interacting thermodynamic systems increases.

• Take your no equilibrium system, and carve it up (Mathematically, not physically) into smaller subdomains, each of which has a fairly constant temperature throughout. They don't have to all have the same temperature, they only need to have their own temperature. You treat each subdomain like an "isolated" system, computing all the internal changes in entropy and energy, and then add in any energy and/or entropy that comes across the boundary from any other subdomain that the subdomain in question is in contact with

3rd Law;

The entropy of a system approaches a constant value as the temperature approaches absolute zero. With the exception of non-crystalline solids the entropy of a system at absolute zero is typically close to zero and is equal to the logarithm of the multiplicity of the quantum ground states

References/Further Reading;

Learnengineering.org. (2016). First Law of Thermodynamics for an Open System ~ Learn Engineering. [online] Available at: http://www.learnengineering.org/2013/03/frist-law-of-thermodynamics-open-system.html [Accessed 24 Apr. 2016].

Tim-thompson.com. (2016). Entropy and the 2nd Law in Open Systems. [online] Available at: http://www.tim-thompson.com/entropy3.html [Accessed 26 Apr. 2016].

 

Open and Closed Systems

Open System

The Open Systems Model is based on open systems theory, which perceives organizations as units that interact with their external environment rather than being closed and independent units.

• Inputs processes, outputs goals.
• Healthy open systems continuously exchange feedback with their environments
• Aspect that are critically important to open systems include the boundaries, external environment and equifinality.
• Examples; Rainforest, Tundra's, Everglades

Therefore ALL natural systems are open systems but more then this they exsit as compounds of cascades through which energy and matter flow; the output of one systems forms the input to the next. 

Example; 

Figure 1; shows a comparison of a open and closed system where one is creating an output and input for the environment the other is not.

As Above in Figure 1 shows energy and chemical elements flowing through the biosphere are diverted temporarily  to the biomass store of the organisms of the different tropic levels. Think about the geothermal heat and energy and geochemical elements through the rock-forming materials. How it the crustal system is divided to store the energy and how it links with the open system?  

Closed System

An isolated system (3rd System) that has no interaction with its external environment. Closed systems output are knowable only through their outputs which are not dependent on the system being a closed or open system. Closed systems without any output are knowable only from within.

• Closed Systems have hard boundaries through which little information is exchanged
• Closed system boundaries are often unhealthy
• Example; Earth

Such a model of the planet is obviously simplified. An example would be Meteorites and how they penetrate the earth atmosphere from space, illustrating that of matter also crossing the boundaries of the system.

Figure 2; The Earth as a closed system as it as an input and an minimal output with no mass energy

 Figure 2 shows how earth is a closed system however the water cycle is also a closed system.

More to come on the laws of Thermodynamics and how to relate them open and Closed systems.... 

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References/ Further Reading


Kk.org. (2016). Kevin Kelly -- Chapter 8: Closed Systems. [online] Available at: http://kk.org/mt-files/outofcontrol/ch8-f.html [Accessed 24 Apr. 2016].


White, I., Mottershead, D. and Harrison, S. (1992). Environmental systems. London: Chapman & Hall.