Leaf Eating Pests

 

Information

• Leaf eating pests are insect that chew or consume plant tissue
• Natural insect repellent can be used in some cases
• Finding holes in the leaves of a plant means its sometimes easier to identify the creature/pest

 



• Sawflies chew holes that don't go all the way through the leaf, making it look intact but transplant. they have to killed by insecticides.

Sawflies

• Leaf miners burrow twisting tunnels across leaves another one to use insecticides against

Leaf Miners

• Sucking insects poke tiny holes in to leaves drawing the nutrition out of them. some examples includes aphids, squash bugs and spider mites. sucking insects can breed rapidly therefore you must act rapidly in order to get fully rid of the pests.

Spider Mites

• Slugs and snails will also feed on the plant leaves. However this is normally controlled by the natural food chain

Snail and Slug

Other animals:

• Wood Pigeon
• Ducks
• Geese
• Rabbits
• Hares
• Small rodents
• Deer

Soil and Root Dwellers- Nematodes

Classification;

 

• Plant-boring pests- Attack the plants roots, tubers, bulbs, rhizomes or the basal regions of the stem
• Some are disease vectors
• Above ground feeders- on the leaves above ground in wet weather or dark phase.

 

Nematoda; A virus Vector

• They are free-living
• Attack the outside of the plants (ectoparasitic)
• Live within the plant as well (endoparasitic)
• These can be classed as either migratory (Moving around form to one place to another) or sedentary (staying in one place)  

Example; Xiphinema spp. (Dagger nematodes)

 

 

This is a soil food web which shows how nematodes are put into the system as a vector under the soil and into animal species as well.

 

 

 

Root-Knot nematodes are plant parasitic nematodes. They exists in the soil where the areas are hot in climate or winters are short. About 5% of global crop loss is due to this nematode, the root-knot development drains the plant's photosynthetic material and nutrients.

Root-knot has a huge economical impact damaging plants and field crop. These nematodes are distributed worldwide and are extremely difficult to control.





Root Knot; Before and After







Domain Plante (Basics)

Definition; 

‘A multicellular, Photosynthetic, eukaryotic organism (includes some algae)…which includes develops from the embryos protected by tissues of the parent plant” (all land plants)

THE LAND PLANTS; 

10 major clades;

•           Three clades have no system of conducting fluids- calling the Non- Vascular Plants or Non Tracheophytes
• 
  
•           Seven Clades have well- developed fluid transport systems based on cells called TRACHEIDS/ TRACHEOPHYTES

Divided into:

•       Non-vascular plants

•       Vascular land plants:

                - Non-seed plants

                - Seed plants:

                                >Gymnosperms

                                > Angiosperms

The Domains

Correct me if I am wrong.... but there are 3 main domains in the 'tree of life'

1. Eukaya
2. Archea
3. Bactria

As stated above this are the main 3 domains... lets go into a bit more depth.

DOMAIN EUKAYA;
This domain contains 4 more domains within it;

1. Protista
2. Fungi
3. Plante
4. Animalia

DOMAIN ARCHEA;

These are only found in the most EXTREME ENVIRONMENTS:

·         Hot springs

·         Anerobic or microaerophilic conditions

·         Sulphurous Volcanic upwellings

·         Extremely saline conditions

·         High alkalinity

·         Extremely acidic conditions

 

Phylum: EURYARCHAEOTA

·         Metgangens

·         Obligate anaerobes producing methane

·         Some are also extreme thermophiles

·         Extreme Halophiles

·         Some use Bacteriorhodopsin to photosynthesis

 

Methanobrevibacter smithii

Domain: Archaea

Kingdom: Euryarchaeota

Phylum: Euryarcheota

Class: Methanobacteria

Order: Methanobacteriales

Family: Methanobacteriaceae

Genus: Methanobrevibacter

Species: M. smithii

 

Phylum: Crenarchaeota

-          Extreme acidophilic and/or thermophiles (often found at volcanic vents)

-          E.g Thermus aquaticus= taq polymerase used DNA amplification

-          Some can survive pH 0.9 and >70 degrees

Sulfolobus acidocaldarius

Domain: Archaea

Kingdom: Crenarchaeota

Phylum: Crenarchaeota

Class: Thermoprotei

Order: Sulfolobales

Family: Sulfolobaceae

Genus: Sulfolobus

Species: Sulfolobus acidocaldarius
 

DOMAIN BACTERIA;

Phylum: Proteobacteria

·         Gram negative

-          Negatively charged cell wall:

       Helps evading Phagocytosis

       Physical Barrier

·         Largest Number of species:

-          E.coli, salmonella, vibrio, Helicobacter

-          Anaerobic, Chemoautotrophs, photoautotrophs, heterotrophs

-          Beneficial symbionts

-          Pathogens

Example;

ESCHERICHA COLI (E.COLI)

Domain: Bacteria

Phylum: Eubacteria

Class: Protebacteria

Order: Gammaprotebacteria

Family: Enterobacteriace

Genus: Escherichia

Species: E.Coli

Phylum: Firmicutes

·         Gram positive, with cell wall containing teichoid acids

·         Teichoid acids:

-          Movement of cations in/out of the cell

-          Antigenic specificity

-          Some produce extremely persistent endospore e.g. anthrax, tetanus

·         Actinomycetales are filamentous bacteria

·         Superficially resembling fungi

·         Important component of the soil microbiota

·         Some serious pathogen, e.g. Mycobacterium

·         Produce many antibiotics, e.g. Streptomycin group

STAPHYLOCOCCUS ALBUS (S.ALBUS)

Domain: Bacteria

Phylum: Firmicutes

Class: Cocci

Order: Bacillales

Family: Staphylococcaceae

Genus: Staphylococcus

Species: Staphylococcus Albus

Introduction to Biomes and Ecosystems

What is an ecosystem?

A community of organisms and the physical environment it occupies together forms an ecosystem.

 

(Source; Quest Garden- I spy an Ecosystem, Getting Kids activity in Science)

The Physical and biological components of ecosystems are linked by the process that it cycles nutrients and transfers energy through the systems

 

usage of.....FOOD WEBS AND TROPHIC PYRAMIDS (as depictions of carbon cycling and energy flow ecosystems)

 

 

Marine ecosystems:

          Open ocean (pelagic)

          Deep ocean (energy is transferred by chemical reactions)

          Upwellings (fertile due to nutrients from deep ocean)

          Continental Shelf (inshore/shallow seas)

          Estuaries and other land/sea ecotones (coves, bays, rias, lochs, saltmarsh, littoral zone, Mangrove swamps, coral reefs etc.).

 

Freshwater ecosystems/habitats:

          Lentic (standing water = lakes and ponds)

          Lotic (running water - rivers and streams)

          Wetlands (marsh and swamp forest)

 

Aquatic Habitats =

 

         Marine - sea water ≈ 1000 mOsm

Brackish -

         Intertidal -

Freshwater ≈ 2.7 mOsm

Marsh/swamp/bog -  Saltmarsh

 

Terrestrial Biomes: (biome = major regional ecological community)

         

Tundra (arctic and alpine)

Boreal Coniferous forest

Temperate Deciduous forest

Temperate Grassland (prairies and steppes)

Tropical Grassland  and Savannah (grassland with some trees)

Chaparral/Mediterranean   (Winter rain, summer drought)

Desert
 

Semi-evergreen tropical forest (pronounced wet and dry seasons)

Evergreen tropical rain forest

 

Domesticated Ecosystems:

 

Agroecosystems

Rural techno-ecosystems (small towns, motorways, railways etc.)

Urban-industrial techno-ecosystems (Metropolitan districts)

 

Terrestrial Habitats =

 

Arboreal - herb layer – shrub layer - tree layer – canopy

Desert

Soil Dwelling

Others (e.g. cave-dwelling/house dwelling)

 

What are the constituents of an ecosystem?

 

Two basic components:

 

Autotrophs: (self-nourishing) = primary producers

         

Photoautotrophs = photosynthetic bacteria, algae and plants.

 

Chemoautotrophs - e.g. nitrifying bacteria,

                             purple sulphur bacteria,

                             methanogens (use ammonium, nitrate,sulphur or hydrogen as substrate).

 

Heterotrophs: (Other-nourishing) = consumers

 

These can be further sub-divided into:

        Herbivores

        Carnivores (primary and secondary)

        Omnivores

        Detritivores = Saprovores.

 

Each of these groups of producers and consumers are said operate at different trophic levels.

Thus

1.  primary producers operate at the 1st trophic level

 

2.  primary consumers operate at 2nd trophic level

 

3.  secondary consumers operate at the 3rd trophic level

4.  tertiary consumers at fourth, etc. etc.

 

 

Taken in a simple form, links between trophic levels are termed food chains - eg., grass, antelope, lion.

 

Materials form CYCLES which may be relatively closed or open, depending on the system - e.g. Nitrogen cycle in rainforests is relatively closed compared to nitrogen use in agriculture.

Main elements are carbon, sulphur, nitrogen, phosphorus (no gaseous phase), oxygen and chlorine.

Most important substance = water

Common Land Biomes

All Biomes that are Known so Far
(Source; Internet Geography- Introduction to the Ecosystem)

 

 

 

 

Tundra

Tundra occurs close to the North Pole, above 65 drees N. The South Pole is largely surrounded by the ice and the seas of the Antarctica, and so there are very little area with plants. Tundra is the coldest biome, and precipitation and evaporation are minimal.

Even with the little precipitation, the lack of evaporation and drainage means the ground is waterlogged and permanent ice occurs below a few centimetres of soils.

The plants are mostly;

-      Mosses

-     Linches

-     Herbs

-      And low shrubs.

 (Grasses and sedges occur in drier places as do other flowering plants)

Plant diversity is low and most plants are small.

 

Alpine

The Alpine Biome is similar to Tundra but lacks permanent ice below the soil, and the temperature very more widely. Alpine areas occur throughout the world, often at about 10,000 feet at lower latitudes, but always just below the snow line. Because of their altitude, these are widely cold places. The thin atmosphere provides only limited protection from UV radiation.

Many Alpine plants are therefore low and slow growing.

 

Taiga

These cool, moist forests occur from 50 to 60 degrees N.

The short summer bring rain, and most of the plants are conifers like;

-     Spruce

-     Fir

-     larch

-     and pine

 (With an understory dominated by shrubs in the blueberry and rose families.)

The soils are deep with accumulated organic matter because of the low temperature result in slow decomposition but they are acidic and poor in nutrients.

 

Temperature Coniferous Forest

 

Two Broad areas of temperature conifers forest occur below 50 degree N in North America, Northern Japan and parts of Europe and the continental Asia.

Along the Pacific coast of the U.S, abundant precipitation permits growth of enormous conifers such as

-     Douglas- fir, Redcedular, Sitka, Spruce and redwoods.

 (Much of the undergrowth is ferns and members of the blueberry family.)

 In the interior of North America, much less precipitation and colder winter temperature support drought- resistant conifers such as Ponderosa and Lodgepole Pines and Englemann Spruce  

 

Deciduous Forest

A moderate climate of hardwood deciduous trees which occur across much of North America, Europe and Asia. Much of this biome is has been exposed to human disruption for agriculture and urban development.

There are usually 15-25 species of trees including;

-     Maples

-     Oaks

-     Poplars

-     And Birches

Springtime Sun passes through the seasonally leafless to reach diverse undergrowth flora. Soils are rich in nutrients from yearly leaf fall, and moderate temperatures and precipitation promote decomposition, while the cool winters promote accumulation of organic materials.

 

 

Temperature Grassland

Before settlement, this biome was occupied by most of the western midlands united states, where it is dominated by the blue- stem and buffalo grasses.

Fire helps maintain grass populations in this biome.

-     Lack of precipitation also prevents many species of trees from growing, and those trees that usually do grow are in low moisture areas

-     Where there is enough moisture to support decomposition, the soils accumulate nutrients, providing some of the most productive agricultural lands.

 

Desert

Desert occurs in continental interior around the North and the south of the equator from 25-35 degrees.

Wind patterns prevent this biome from receiving more than a few centimetres of precipitation yearly.

The deep- rooted plants are adapted to store water, like a cactus.

Primary production is low and soils are poor in nutrients but may have high surface salt evaporation.

 

Chaparral

Like Deserts, the distribution of Chaparral reflects a narrow range of climate conditions and occurs on western edge of continents from 32-40 degrees north to south of the equator.

Precipitation ranges from 35-70cm per year, usually falling in 2-4 months.

 Typically plants are;

-      Yearly herbs

-     Evergreen shrubs

-     And small trees

Typical Woody Species;

-     Olives

-     Eucalyptus

-     Acacia

-     Oaks

(Always drought Resistant and often adapted often adapted to withstand fire. Limited precipitation means soils are not rich in organic materials)

 

Savannah

Tall, perennial, grasses dominate this biome which occurs in eastern Africa, southern South American and Australia.

Rain is seasonal and ranges from 75- 150 cm per year.

Scattered trees and shrubs usually drop their leaves in the dry season to protect moisture.

Animal diversity can be high and include the large mammals well known in Africa.

 

Rain Forest  

This moist, highly diverse forest extends North and south of the equator from 10 degrees N to 10 degrees S. (Imagine line around earth)

Yearly rainfall is commonly more than 250cm, and tree diversity alone often exceeds 300 species per hectare.

-     Trees grow tall, and many have buttressed roots for support.

-     Lianas and other epiphytic plant are common.

-      Most leaves are evergreen and leathery and many have long pointed tips that facilitate drainage of excess moisture.

 

Due to the high temperature and heavy rains, decomposition, is very rapid, preventing the accumulation of organic material in clay-rich or sandy soils