The potential Effects of Microplastics on Biodiversity in the south East Kent Coast

This Paper is written by myself to show
The potential Effects of Microplastics on Biodiversity in the south East Kent Coast


The potential Effects of Microplastics on Biodiversity in the south East Kent Coast




ENJOY

Soil and Root Dwellers- Nematodes

Classification;

 

• Plant-boring pests- Attack the plants roots, tubers, bulbs, rhizomes or the basal regions of the stem
• Some are disease vectors
• Above ground feeders- on the leaves above ground in wet weather or dark phase.

 

Nematoda; A virus Vector

• They are free-living
• Attack the outside of the plants (ectoparasitic)
• Live within the plant as well (endoparasitic)
• These can be classed as either migratory (Moving around form to one place to another) or sedentary (staying in one place)  

Example; Xiphinema spp. (Dagger nematodes)

 

 

This is a soil food web which shows how nematodes are put into the system as a vector under the soil and into animal species as well.

 

 

 

Root-Knot nematodes are plant parasitic nematodes. They exists in the soil where the areas are hot in climate or winters are short. About 5% of global crop loss is due to this nematode, the root-knot development drains the plant's photosynthetic material and nutrients.

Root-knot has a huge economical impact damaging plants and field crop. These nematodes are distributed worldwide and are extremely difficult to control.





Root Knot; Before and After







The 3 Strategies of survial

K- Strategist

• Stable environments are labelled by species with a K-strategy

Such animals tend to large, long-lived and invest a large amount of energy into rearing their offspring ensuring they have a higher survival rate.

Elephants are within the  K -species as they rear for their young to induce a higher survival rate therefore most of their energy is placed into that instead of surviving the unstable conditions they have adapted to K-strategist.

Population levels tend to remain stable

(More related to mortality then environmental influences)

R- Strategist

• Fluctuating Environments are labelled by species in the R-strategy

These tend to be small, short-lived species. whom invest all their energy in producing more offspring then the K species, the population density can get low due to parental care being minimum.



Mice are within the R-strategy as they have so many offspring that minimum care can be giving to all off the offspring from the mother therefore she actually produces a low density due to deaths at young ages.

Low survival rates but tend to maximum use of temporary environments

A table showing the Differences between R and K;

 

Table show the differences between R and K

The graph above shows lifespans of fish which is a R species therefore has a short lifespan but higher density (Blue line) and Dugongs which is a K species which population level tends to remain high therefore it lives longer (red line)

Bet-Hedging

• Bet-hedging strategies alter strategies according to their environment

some spread their life histories over variables time periods, others respond to their environments by laying eggs and then moving on.





the graph above shows how bet hedging works the growth of the plants is unpredictable by fitness as the plant is using mechanisms of change to survive in unpredictable circumstances.

PESTS! - MAINLY R-STRATEGISTS.

Vascular Plants

Vascular Plants (Phylum Tracheophyta)

• Tracheids - Specialised cells for conducting water and supporting tissues (forming the xylem vessels)
• All SPOROPHYTES in this group are larger than the gametophytes and have ROOTS, STEMS AND LEAVES.
• can be further sub divided into the non- sees tracheophytes and the seed plants

THE SPERMATOPHYTA 'Seed Plants';

Now represented by two Phyla:

- The Gymnosperms:
 ( Cycads, Gingkos, Gneetophytes, Confiers)

- Angiosperms
 (Magnoliphyta or flowering plants)

COMMON THINGS IN ALL SEED PLANTS;

• Seeds
• Reduced Gametophytes
• Heterospory: Spored of two different sizes and sexes
• Ovules: Female gametophyte, protected by tissues of sporangium
• Pollen: Male Gametes (Sperm cells)

THE ALTERNATION OF GERNERATION IN THE SPERMATOPHYTA;

 

• The gametophyte generation is reduced to a very small, simple stage (only a few cells!).

• The gametophyte develops partly or entirely whilst it is still nutritionally dependent on the sporophyte. 

Domain Plante (Basics)

Definition; 

‘A multicellular, Photosynthetic, eukaryotic organism (includes some algae)…which includes develops from the embryos protected by tissues of the parent plant” (all land plants)

THE LAND PLANTS; 

10 major clades;

•           Three clades have no system of conducting fluids- calling the Non- Vascular Plants or Non Tracheophytes
• 
  
•           Seven Clades have well- developed fluid transport systems based on cells called TRACHEIDS/ TRACHEOPHYTES

Divided into:

•       Non-vascular plants

•       Vascular land plants:

                - Non-seed plants

                - Seed plants:

                                >Gymnosperms

                                > Angiosperms

The prokaryotic Cell

Species definition;
"population of cells with similar characteristics"

Cell wall;
- Peptidoglycan
- Outer membrane

The DNA of Bacteria is contained in a circular chromosome, folded into many loops

Bacteria have both a plasma membrane and cell wall

Bacteria often have a small circles of additional DNA called plasmids.

SHARED CHARACTERISTICS

1. Plasma or cell membrane
2. Nucleoid
3. Cytoplasm; Cytosol + Insoluble Particles
4. Ribosomes

DISTINCTIVE CHARACTERISTICS

1. Cell walls
2. Capsules
3. Internal membranes
4. Flagella
5. Pili
6. Fimbriae
7. Cytoskeleton

PLASMA MEMBRANE;
is a selective barrier enclosing the cell that separates the interior and exterior of the cell from the environment. It is semi permeable, it allows gases, nutrients and waste in and out of the cell. (Bilayer of Phospholipids with proteins attached to or embedded in it)

NUCLEIOD;
The region in the prokaryotic cell where DNA is located

CYTOPLASM;
Composed of cytosol; mostly water and soluble particles

RIBOSOMES;
complex of RNA and proteins which function as sites for proteins synthesis (RNA-PROTIENS)

CELL WALL;
Outside the plasma membrane, bacteria contains peptidoglycan that covers the entire cell:
- gives rigidity
- Support and shape

CAPSULE;
layer of polysaccharides enclosing the cell wall.
protects the bacteria from the immune function and desiccation, also helps attachment

INTERNAL MEMBRANE;
A system of folded bilayer membrane that contains molecules needed for;
- Photosynthesis
- Cell division
- energy releasing reactions

FLAGELLA;
Corkscrew- like appendage used for movement.
composed of flagellin and protein ring structures anchored in plasma membrane forming a rotor

PILI;
Hair like structure, shorter then flagella.
Made of protein projecting from the surface of many bacteria
Used for adherence.

FIMBRIAE;
Shorter then the pili.
Used for adherence to animal cells, food and protection

CYTOSKELETON;
Network of filaments structures, extends length of cell.
Inside the plasma membrane. present in rod shape Bactria (E.Coli)

The Domains

Correct me if I am wrong.... but there are 3 main domains in the 'tree of life'

1. Eukaya
2. Archea
3. Bactria

As stated above this are the main 3 domains... lets go into a bit more depth.

DOMAIN EUKAYA;
This domain contains 4 more domains within it;

1. Protista
2. Fungi
3. Plante
4. Animalia

DOMAIN ARCHEA;

These are only found in the most EXTREME ENVIRONMENTS:

·         Hot springs

·         Anerobic or microaerophilic conditions

·         Sulphurous Volcanic upwellings

·         Extremely saline conditions

·         High alkalinity

·         Extremely acidic conditions

 

Phylum: EURYARCHAEOTA

·         Metgangens

·         Obligate anaerobes producing methane

·         Some are also extreme thermophiles

·         Extreme Halophiles

·         Some use Bacteriorhodopsin to photosynthesis

 

Methanobrevibacter smithii

Domain: Archaea

Kingdom: Euryarchaeota

Phylum: Euryarcheota

Class: Methanobacteria

Order: Methanobacteriales

Family: Methanobacteriaceae

Genus: Methanobrevibacter

Species: M. smithii

 

Phylum: Crenarchaeota

-          Extreme acidophilic and/or thermophiles (often found at volcanic vents)

-          E.g Thermus aquaticus= taq polymerase used DNA amplification

-          Some can survive pH 0.9 and >70 degrees

Sulfolobus acidocaldarius

Domain: Archaea

Kingdom: Crenarchaeota

Phylum: Crenarchaeota

Class: Thermoprotei

Order: Sulfolobales

Family: Sulfolobaceae

Genus: Sulfolobus

Species: Sulfolobus acidocaldarius
 

DOMAIN BACTERIA;

Phylum: Proteobacteria

·         Gram negative

-          Negatively charged cell wall:

       Helps evading Phagocytosis

       Physical Barrier

·         Largest Number of species:

-          E.coli, salmonella, vibrio, Helicobacter

-          Anaerobic, Chemoautotrophs, photoautotrophs, heterotrophs

-          Beneficial symbionts

-          Pathogens

Example;

ESCHERICHA COLI (E.COLI)

Domain: Bacteria

Phylum: Eubacteria

Class: Protebacteria

Order: Gammaprotebacteria

Family: Enterobacteriace

Genus: Escherichia

Species: E.Coli

Phylum: Firmicutes

·         Gram positive, with cell wall containing teichoid acids

·         Teichoid acids:

-          Movement of cations in/out of the cell

-          Antigenic specificity

-          Some produce extremely persistent endospore e.g. anthrax, tetanus

·         Actinomycetales are filamentous bacteria

·         Superficially resembling fungi

·         Important component of the soil microbiota

·         Some serious pathogen, e.g. Mycobacterium

·         Produce many antibiotics, e.g. Streptomycin group

STAPHYLOCOCCUS ALBUS (S.ALBUS)

Domain: Bacteria

Phylum: Firmicutes

Class: Cocci

Order: Bacillales

Family: Staphylococcaceae

Genus: Staphylococcus

Species: Staphylococcus Albus

Common Land Biomes

All Biomes that are Known so Far
(Source; Internet Geography- Introduction to the Ecosystem)

 

 

 

 

Tundra

Tundra occurs close to the North Pole, above 65 drees N. The South Pole is largely surrounded by the ice and the seas of the Antarctica, and so there are very little area with plants. Tundra is the coldest biome, and precipitation and evaporation are minimal.

Even with the little precipitation, the lack of evaporation and drainage means the ground is waterlogged and permanent ice occurs below a few centimetres of soils.

The plants are mostly;

-      Mosses

-     Linches

-     Herbs

-      And low shrubs.

 (Grasses and sedges occur in drier places as do other flowering plants)

Plant diversity is low and most plants are small.

 

Alpine

The Alpine Biome is similar to Tundra but lacks permanent ice below the soil, and the temperature very more widely. Alpine areas occur throughout the world, often at about 10,000 feet at lower latitudes, but always just below the snow line. Because of their altitude, these are widely cold places. The thin atmosphere provides only limited protection from UV radiation.

Many Alpine plants are therefore low and slow growing.

 

Taiga

These cool, moist forests occur from 50 to 60 degrees N.

The short summer bring rain, and most of the plants are conifers like;

-     Spruce

-     Fir

-     larch

-     and pine

 (With an understory dominated by shrubs in the blueberry and rose families.)

The soils are deep with accumulated organic matter because of the low temperature result in slow decomposition but they are acidic and poor in nutrients.

 

Temperature Coniferous Forest

 

Two Broad areas of temperature conifers forest occur below 50 degree N in North America, Northern Japan and parts of Europe and the continental Asia.

Along the Pacific coast of the U.S, abundant precipitation permits growth of enormous conifers such as

-     Douglas- fir, Redcedular, Sitka, Spruce and redwoods.

 (Much of the undergrowth is ferns and members of the blueberry family.)

 In the interior of North America, much less precipitation and colder winter temperature support drought- resistant conifers such as Ponderosa and Lodgepole Pines and Englemann Spruce  

 

Deciduous Forest

A moderate climate of hardwood deciduous trees which occur across much of North America, Europe and Asia. Much of this biome is has been exposed to human disruption for agriculture and urban development.

There are usually 15-25 species of trees including;

-     Maples

-     Oaks

-     Poplars

-     And Birches

Springtime Sun passes through the seasonally leafless to reach diverse undergrowth flora. Soils are rich in nutrients from yearly leaf fall, and moderate temperatures and precipitation promote decomposition, while the cool winters promote accumulation of organic materials.

 

 

Temperature Grassland

Before settlement, this biome was occupied by most of the western midlands united states, where it is dominated by the blue- stem and buffalo grasses.

Fire helps maintain grass populations in this biome.

-     Lack of precipitation also prevents many species of trees from growing, and those trees that usually do grow are in low moisture areas

-     Where there is enough moisture to support decomposition, the soils accumulate nutrients, providing some of the most productive agricultural lands.

 

Desert

Desert occurs in continental interior around the North and the south of the equator from 25-35 degrees.

Wind patterns prevent this biome from receiving more than a few centimetres of precipitation yearly.

The deep- rooted plants are adapted to store water, like a cactus.

Primary production is low and soils are poor in nutrients but may have high surface salt evaporation.

 

Chaparral

Like Deserts, the distribution of Chaparral reflects a narrow range of climate conditions and occurs on western edge of continents from 32-40 degrees north to south of the equator.

Precipitation ranges from 35-70cm per year, usually falling in 2-4 months.

 Typically plants are;

-      Yearly herbs

-     Evergreen shrubs

-     And small trees

Typical Woody Species;

-     Olives

-     Eucalyptus

-     Acacia

-     Oaks

(Always drought Resistant and often adapted often adapted to withstand fire. Limited precipitation means soils are not rich in organic materials)

 

Savannah

Tall, perennial, grasses dominate this biome which occurs in eastern Africa, southern South American and Australia.

Rain is seasonal and ranges from 75- 150 cm per year.

Scattered trees and shrubs usually drop their leaves in the dry season to protect moisture.

Animal diversity can be high and include the large mammals well known in Africa.

 

Rain Forest  

This moist, highly diverse forest extends North and south of the equator from 10 degrees N to 10 degrees S. (Imagine line around earth)

Yearly rainfall is commonly more than 250cm, and tree diversity alone often exceeds 300 species per hectare.

-     Trees grow tall, and many have buttressed roots for support.

-     Lianas and other epiphytic plant are common.

-      Most leaves are evergreen and leathery and many have long pointed tips that facilitate drainage of excess moisture.

 

Due to the high temperature and heavy rains, decomposition, is very rapid, preventing the accumulation of organic material in clay-rich or sandy soils

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

  

Grimes' Triangle

Grimes' Triangle has 3 points to it as seen in figure 1 below these are naturally referred to as "C-S-R" in many scientific reports for abbreviation.
The C stands for competitions with plants
The S stands for Stress
The R stands for ruderal (Meaning a plant growing on a space where there is already crowded plants)



 Grime's C-S-R triangle theory has been discussed in plant ecology for two decades, but it has rarely been tested, and not often dispassionately evaluated. We consider the theory from a community viewpoint, and attempt to develop and test predictions for plant communities. C-S-R assumes that in high-disturbance (ruderal, R) patches or habitats, competition will be absent, or low in intensity. Testing this is problematic because of the difficulty of defining the intensity of competition, and we could find no rigorous evidence to support or refute the prediction


Wilson, J. and Lee, W. (2000). C-S-R triangle theory: community-level predictions, tests, evaluation of criticisms, and relation to other theories. Oikos, 91(1), pp.77-96.

R and K selection

As the name implies, r-selected species are those that place an emphasis on a high growth rate, and, typically exploit less-crowded ecological niches, and produce many offspring, each of which has a relatively low probability of surviving to adulthood.

HIGH (Reproductive Rate) = R
LOW (Reproductive Rate) = K

K species live in populations that are near or at the equilibrium conditions for long periods of time. Competitive for limited resources is very important in these environments.
I.e. Lemmas, Giraffe, elephants and bats.

R species live in populations that are highly variable. the fittest individuals in these environment have many offspring and reproduce early.  
I.e. Mosquitos and Toads.


Figure 1. A table showing r-K scale of reproductive of balancing egg outputs

Dis/Advantages of being a K species;

• reproductive rate last long time along with parental care making them a weakness to a competitive environment. (Dis)
• More care to young makes them more ability to survive in the wild as they will have learned behaviours from parents (Ad)
• The young will have be dependant on the mother which in order makes the mother a target for predators as she has herself to protect as well as her young (Dis)
• Fewer, Larger offspring. (Dis)
• Later reproductive age (Dis/Ad)
• High parental Care and protection for offspring (Dis)
• Larger Adults (Ad)
• Adapted to stable conditions of the environment (Ad)
• Population size fairly stable and usually close to carrying the capacity (Ad)

Dis/ Advantages of being a R species;

• where there is a short reproductive period there is less weakness for the a competitive environment (Ad)
• Likely that more young is produced known that at least one young will survive however they do have to learn on there own due to lack of parental care. (Dis)
• No young dependent on mother however this means lack of survival (Dis)
• Lower population growth rate (Dis)

Figure 2; Comparison chart for the R and K